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Could More Developed Film Characters Improve Our Mental Health? - An Essay Article

  • Jane Hearst
  • Sep 30, 2017
  • 42 min read

'Thickening the Alternative Story’:

An Analysis of Commercial Anglo-American Film Companies and the Potentially Therapeutic Affects of Their Narratives

by

Jane Hearst

Contents

Introduction:

Commercial Anglo-American Fiction Film and its Potentially

Therapeutic Affects

Chapter 1:

Cumulative Memorizing, Thin descriptions and The Alternative

Story

Chapter 2:

Multiple Narratives, Moral Conflicts and the Importance of

Global Emotions

Chapter 3:

Marketing Characters, Non-Linguistic Imagination and the

Cinematic Bubble

Chapter 4:

Motor Mimicry, Proprioceptive Feedback and the Redefining of

Minorities

Conclusion:

Search Light function, Prosocial Effects of Films and an

Optimistic Future

Bibliography

Filmography

Introduction

Commercial Anglo-American Fiction Film and its Potentially Therapeutic Affects

In the span of the following report, I hope to explore narrative development and how a film can be encoded to have therapeutic affects. By using the psychological field of ‘narrative therapy’ as inspiration for my theory (a field which I will explain in more detail in the next chapter), I hope to suggest a means in which characters can be developed to be more three-dimensional and realistic whilst not compromising on their qualities that make them entertaining and intriguing to an audience. I will argue that by creating a more developed cast of characters in a film, the overall story benefits from the nuances of detail if used correctly.

Specifically, I explore the idea of coding a character in sophisticated ways which do not require the audience to consciously think more, but rather to leave the cinema with more accurate expectations and responses to the personalities of the real world; including their own (which is where the therapeutic side of my argument will begin to develop from). To do this I will initially explore the concerns that are currently constraining Hollywood from adopting this model. I will then move on to explain why I believe film to be the most suitable medium for this type of therapy, talking first about the physical space of cinema, followed by the science of spectatorship. I use cognitive film theory as evidence to suggest that these beneficial reactions can become somewhat automatic. To do this I will reference at large, back to Carl Plantinga’s Moving Viewers (2009), which has acted as a key text in the research of this theory.

I have chosen to focus on commercial Anglo-American fiction for the purposes of this project. This is so that I may directly compare my future model of narrative development against the prevailing structure I hope to suggest exists at present. Whilst I recognize that a great deal of world cinema does not exclusively follow this structure, I argue that commercial American cinema concerns itself with the pleasurable manipulation of viewer’s emotions. As Carl Plantinga maintains ‘mainstream American films rarely offer the kind of distanced, intellectual stance characteristics of some independent film’ (Plantinga, 2009:7). They are therefore a suitable place to start when applying any film analysis that is emotion based like my own. Carrying on from that, American movies influence audiences worldwide in a way in which no other cinema can claim to do. Moreover, Writing from an Anglo-American perspective, my focus on Hollywood implicitly acknowledges Plantinga’s view that ‘emotion is to some extent culturally constructed’ (Plantinga, 2009:7).

Commercial American film however, is still a vast area to study. As a result, I have chosen to focus on 3 companies, which I have identified to currently be attracting a significant level of fandom interaction with their content; Marvel, Pixar and Netflix. By insisting that the companies I focus on have a large fan base, they act as good evidence to support the claims I have gathered from each. The positives of working from popular cinema like this, is that they are far-reaching productions, allowing me to make claims on the implications of emotional manipulation regarding a wide audience-base.

At the root of my theory lies the idea of being both good and bad simultaneously. Whilst I do not directly reference this claim, I use it throughout my argument to inform my research and to challenge in the process an audience’s perception of these as binary opposites. By suggesting instead that these concepts lie along a progressive scale, I hope to move the focus of good and bad away from a person, and towards an action through which I hope to create a healthier societal model from which spectators can compare themselves to.

Chapter 1

Cumulative Memorizing, Thin descriptions and The Alternative Story

When writing about fictional characters A. J. Greimas has suggested that:

A character in a novel, supposing that it is introduced by the attribution of a name conferred on it, is progressively created by consecutive figurative notions extending throughout the length of the text, and it does not exist as a complete figure until the last page, thanks to the cumulative memorizing of the reader. (1987:119)

M. Smith describes this as a ‘simplistic structuralist’ understanding of character (1995:18-20). Taking this understanding, I suggest that we could apply the same theory to reality; the more time we explore somebody’s character, and in different situations, the greater our ability to understand an identity as three-dimensional. Smith explores the idea that when this information is sparse, an audience ‘uses cultural models and stereotypes to “fill out” the information provided by the text’ (1995:19). Much work has been written in regards to the negative outcomes that can result from stereotypes. In this article, I hope to explore, not simply the negative outcomes that we project on to others in a societal context, but more specifically, that which we project onto ourselves. The following body of work, will predominately focus on company/textual analysis, with the intention of understanding whether the character development within a media text can change the way in which we decode our own characters from day to day. That is to suggest that media could potentially teach us how to understand a character, and thus act as a form of micro-therapy.

B. Brown touches upon this concept in her talk The Power of Vulnerability where by she coins the term ‘perfectly imperfect’ and says ‘we can’t practice compassion with other people if we can’t treat ourselves kindly’ (2010). To a large extent this can be achieved by ‘viewing problems as separate to people’ (Morgan, A. 2000:2) an idea which resonates both with Aristotle’s breakdown of literature (1996) and with the general specialism of “Narrative therapy”. The latter has been developed since the 1980’s - the time in which the initial term was coined by David Epston and Michael White (1990).

Narrative therapy understands plots as ‘privileged events’ (Morgan, A. 2000:6). By focusing on these only, people result in having a limited definition of who they are. So for example, for somebody that perceives scientific knowledge and mathematic abilities as a means to measure intelligence may deem themselves stupid, despite their flair for poetic writing and their in depth knowledge of history. To apply this back to Greimas’ original suggestion of cumulative memorizing, we can understand this claim in terms of characters being seen in limited scenarios on screen. For example, in a bond film, like that of the recently released Spectre (2015), James is seen as an unbreakable assassin. The film references people who have died in the past, to grip the hearts of the audience, but not once is he seen simply breaking down under the stress of that history. That could suggest that to be a strong male character, emotions should either not be felt or not be seen. Arguably, should Bond cry one moment, then go on to save the day the next, then he would have a more rounded and realistic character. The message inferred from the initial situation is that crying is a sign of weakness, and should be avoided at all costs, whilst in the second hypothetical situation, the understanding of strength is much more complex; that is to feel pain, express it, but not be destroyed by it.

In this example, the former version of the story would be a “thin description” meaning, a plot that ‘allows little space for the complexities and contradictions of life’ (Morgan 2000:12). The second version of the story by contrast would be closer to a “rich description” but not quite. For the story to qualify as “rich” ‘The motives of the characters, their histories, and own understandings are finely articulated. The stories of the characters lives are interwoven with the stories of other people and events’ (Morgan 2000:15).

To sum up then, for a rich description in the 007 film, Bond would articulate his motives for chasing the bad guys on a more personal level rather than the overarching motivation of “saving the day” which could have been applied to any character within the film. Why was he motivated when the others were not? Even when they had the same level of information as him? Furthermore, a more developed history could have been created. We see that he has a history with females which has always ended badly, and are presented with a new female to catch his gaze, but we are shown nothing in relation to how this affects his interaction with the new female; would our understanding of their relationship have really changed without the backstory? Finally, he involves many friends in his quest, yet their screen time is significantly less. Should we see them debating their involvement with Bond, we would gain a more complicated understanding of what was at stake. This would have the dual effect of creating a more engaging film, as well as inspiring a habit to view problems within their wider context.

Narrative therapy has a few suggestions on how to improve a narrative, starting with ‘The Unique Outcome’ (Morgan 2000:51). This is an example of a moment that contradicts the narrative somebody has created of himself or herself. So, an avid fan of Bond films may find themselves feeling somewhat depressed, stemming from a belief that they are not courageous/manly and that this is a negative thing. By finding a moment where Bond was unafraid to show weakness, in a way that was not detrimental to their understanding of him as a courageous character, it inspires them to more critically explore their lives for moments that contradict their belief that they are uncourageous.

Stemming from this term is another: “The Alternative story”. Morgan explains that by ‘tracing the history and meaning of the unique outcome’ (Morgan 2000:59) a more detailed and realistic story can be built, one that needs “thickening” (Morgan 2000:73). Using this concept of “thickening the alternative story”, I will explore the narratives of the a few prominent films, for each of the companies I outlined in the introduction.

In addition to Narrative therapy, the spectator theory written by Yudkovsky in his Abridged Guide to Intelligent Characters (2013), will aid the background understanding of my piece. In this guide, he writes that ‘The strongest impression of character intelligence is made when that intelligence is vivid enough, and real enough, to be contagious to the reader’ (Yudkovsky, 2013). Through this he seems to suggest, like myself, that a character which is emotionally intelligent enough, not only entertains the audience more than a character based off of stereotypes, but they in fact become the type of characters that we strive to be like.

Level 1 of Yudkovsky’s theory states that intelligent characters are ‘not characters that are trying to do super amazing things, but characters that are trying in routine ways to optimize their own life’ (Yudkovski, 2013). So for example, in superhero films there could be two types of hero. The first is a character limited in their strength that overcomes their perceived limitations and discovers a practical solution to the problem at hand. The second is a character that suddenly becomes stronger/ more equipped than the audience was lead to believe previously, with no explanation as to how. Through Yudkovsky’s explaination, the former would both be more entertaining to an audience, and more beneficial to their understanding of how to interact with an environment. Plantinga too, would likely support this claim, as he explains that one of the primary pleasures derived from movie watching is ‘cognitive play’; ‘as social beings, humans gain adaptive benefit from the imaginative rehearsal of various human predicaments’ (Plantinga, 2009:31).

In level 2, Yudkovsky demonstrates an understanding much like that of Aristotle; that acts witnessed in a film, must be an act that you would expect to do in that situation (1996). Yudovsky expands on this concept by asserting ‘If the character does something novel or unexpected using widely available tools, the surrounding civilization must be such that other people wouldn’t have thought of it already’ (Yudkovski, 2013). He seems to suggest therefore that the more rational a world and characters motivations are, the more likely we are to enjoy the cognitive play associated with it.

Extending this application of rationality, Yudovsky suggests that a ‘character perceives themselves as being at the centre of the universe, and you shouldn’t be able to tell that someone else is really the centre instead’ (Yudkovski, 2013). I seek to indicate that audience members too, may often forget that they are not at the centre of their universe. As survival motivated creatures, we often see things primarily from our points of view and we are allowed as a result to make errors in our judgements. As long as this is acknowledged, we may begin to accept our mistakes from the past and strive to think more universally in future decision making. This is where the idea of ensemble films being beneficial comes into play – a concept that I explore in the next chapter. This is due to the availability of multiple characters, allowing each character to view themselves as the centre of their universe, without the spectator also aligning themselves this way.

Chapter 2

Multiple Narratives, Moral Conflicts and the Importance of Global Emotions

In this chapter, I hope to express why Hollywood executives should consider the use of multiple narratives in their business models. I do so whilst holding the belief that Hollywood is largely profit-motivated, in comparison to independent films, which, out of the two, are more likely to evolve from morally righteous concerns. As a result, I have chosen to develop my theory of therapy around business-minded concerns, as to suggest that the two are not quite as mutually exclusive as many would believe them to be at present. To consider how the two may work in conjunction, we will begin by exploring the current audiovisual landscape.

After considering recent trends in viewing patterns of audiovisual content, theorists have suggested a modern day lean towards ‘television’ content over ‘film’. Specifically when I talk about television I do not refer only to that which is viewed on a television screen, but instead any type of serial content that may be watched at home. In comparison, when I talk of film, I refer to content that is primarily intended to profit from theatrical release.

This recent lean towards television content could be suggested to root from the relatively recent emergence of platforms such as LoveFilm, Netflix, and Amazon TV. However, I argue that without a demand for this content in the first place, these platforms would not have gained as much success as they have. Instead, I deduce that the primary draw towards serial content is a call from audiences for greater character interaction. To support this claim, I invite you to consider the difference in characters within film and those of television. By doing so, it is clear that within a serial context, the capacity of drawing on character backgrounds, motivations and identities is greater, as overall, they can elapse more time.

Nonetheless, what about the current media landscape has made this distinction become particularly pertinent recently? Besides, television content has been around since the 1929 in the UK (BBC 2001: Online). I suggest that the significance of the current economy is that film has recently lost what many believe to be its ‘unique selling point’. That is to say, that once film benefited from its stance as ‘quality’, over television, a medium that simply promoted ‘accessibility’. Nowadays however, quality digital content is the norm for both film and television. However, the same cannot be said for the accessibility of content, particularly if you measure only that which is retrieved legally.

Indeed, I maintain that television content continues to be the more accessible medium, with online platforms like Netflix charging as little as £6 a month (Netflix, 2016: online) in the UK for unlimited access to all of their content. In comparison, your average cinema ticket is £9.12 (Follows: 2015, Online) and your average DVD purchase is over £8 (Statista: 2014, online). Some may argue that this is a mute point, as realistically distribution is much more complex that I have suggested thus far, with these films eventually ending up on online platforms as well. Nevertheless, the profitability of films that are distributed through online platforms alone is minimal. As a result, the promotion of this content very much focuses on theatrical release, which is why I choose to measure its accessibility this way. If you accept this means of measurement, audiences are essentially paying more for a single viewing of a film, than they would for unlimited access of TV. Moreover, television also upholds its reputation for accessibility in additional ways, with increasing initiatives like on demand, pay per view, YouTube through TV etc. Film meanwhile, can hardly claim to be better quality any more.

Increasingly TV productions like Breaking Bad (2008-2013), Indian Summers (2015-present) and any other drama based show, are operating under a single camera style of filming. This gives the shows a more cinematic look as the creators have greater control over camera movement, framing and lighting. Film on the other hand, already adopted these techniques and with the near complete move over to digital - baring a few celluloid enthusiasts - it leaves itself with no more to offer out of its medium than television. As a result, the film industry has no doubt tried to compensate. I would argue that it has primarily done so by focusing on the spectacle of film. Similarly, Denby argues that ‘recent Hollywood films have forsaken both sympathetic emotions and the general complexity and depth of emotional response for the cheap effects of superficial direct emotions – the fascination and cheap thrills of mere spectacle’ (Plantinga 2009:85)

By spectacle I refer to the increasingly fast paced nature of visual content, whereby increased continuity editing, reliance on soundtracks/action sequences and heavy use of special effects dilute a films potential for emotional connection. Realistically, of all these elements, special effects are probably the only advantage film has over television serials. With new and ever evolving capabilities of special effects they are indeed something that film should exploit to its advantage, as unlike television, it is likely to start with a bigger overall budget. To focus solely on this however, would be a mistake. The reason I assert this is that Hollywood has built its business on the exploitation of emotions. To neglect this significant element in favor of short-lived pleasures, would, as a result, greatly sacrifice its ability to profit. Should it continue as it is, Hollywood will eventually develop a reputation of consistently failing to meet its audience’s desires; an opinion, which is already rife within critic circles. However, if not through spectacle, how can Hollywood hope to entice its audience back to the cinema?

Through analysing the Anglo-American market, one can observe an increase in sequels, remakes and novel adaptions as of late (Follows: 2015, online). I believe this to support my claim that audiences are searching for character interaction, as all of these types of film work from pre-existing characters, in much the same way that serial content does in the television landscape. One could even suggest that the more television mimics film, the more film has begun to mimic television. Hollywood’s answer, instead of creating refreshing three-dimensional characters, is to recycle characters that the audiences are seen to know and love already. This saves time marketing, but more importantly in the eyes of Hollywood executives, it minimalizes risk. I believe this assumption to be dangerous. If executives rely on reputation alone, they will neglect the magic that is awe and without this important detail, cinema will die. Even if a film universe is to work with pre-established characters, it must find something unique about them to explore, as familiarity alone is not sufficient to create interest – a concept I will explore more, later in the chapter.

First, let us examine a company who has created a household name from the premise I explained above. Working from comics, pre-established characters, star culture, fandom and sequels, Marvel is a perfect example. Moreover, I would argue that Marvel has followed this business model much more successfully than other companies. This is because they have evolved their characters to be awe-inspiring, as I have suggested they must. By starting with a company like this, I wish to convince the risk averse, that even within the safety blanket of reputation, three-dimensional characters can and should blossom. For me, this is important, as I believe three-dimensional characters to be a necessary component of my theory of therapy. However, throughout my exploration I hope to equally suggest the alternative benefits available, as to convince the business minded to adopt this style of storytelling.

Marvel, first and foremost succeeds, by recognizing in their business model, the human desire to make connections, and thus they mix their stories in a single universe. They began by introducing characters with big personalities, in a film of their own, ensuring in the process that they included supporting characters that crossed over in among these films (the main example being Nick Fury). Following this, they mixed the characters in a battle of ‘The Avengers’, using Nick Fury as the instigator of their union. Still, the characters continue to appear in their own films and within the ensemble Avenger films, each referencing those that came before them. Depending on whether they battle alone or in a group determines the scale of the battles they face, along with the overall motivation. The satisfaction that an audience gets from this type of arrangement is the constant referencing back to past events and occasionally even the tease of what is to come. Marvel publish their future intentions for films, allowing avid fans of their comics to recognize references in the media-text. This promotes their brand at large as the more their fans endorse the company outside of the cinema, the more satisfaction they can gain from the subtext. This is not to say that newcomer’s cannot equally benefit from the films. Even a basic knowledge of some characters allows for audience recognition of links among jokes and references made by these characters, which as a result makes spectators feel somewhat part of the onscreen team. Take for example the seemingly unimportant scene in The Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015) whereby the team attempt to lift Thors hammer. In this moment in time, the filmmakers play off a long line of prequels to create reference filled jokes. Furthermore, without the need to focus on exposition quite so much in every film, the action may begin earlier, resulting in more time for the characters to be developed.

I believe this level of character development to be beneficial as it avoids portraying a limited definition of an identity. This fluid and ever evolving nature if the characters expands a spectators understanding of what it means to be. Too often, media relies on stereotypes, due to time restrictions, and audiences take this simplistic reading of identity into their everyday functioning in the real world. The promotion of complex characters – as I suggested in the previous chapter – encourages a healthy way of living and understanding. Furthermore, I also believe the Marvel Universe to be therapeutic, due to the capacity of multiple-narrative films to allow audiences to distinguish different positive and negative traits in a variety of people. This allows them to identify throughout the film with varying aspects of personalities, but due to the aspects being separated among identities, the audience subconsciously negotiates a greater understanding of their own identity and moral standing. Compare this to a single protagonist film, whereby the understanding of right and wrong is much more simplified. In this situation, the more an audience fails to identify with the protagonists identity, the more they may conclude that this makes a statement on how ‘good’ they are in comparison.

Another positive endorsement of the Marvel universe is that it focuses on superheroes; automatically making them people to look up to. The creative teams responsible for molding these superheroes however, have given them many ‘everyday human’ characteristics; by which I specifically mean they are given flaws. By creating a team environment for the tougher challenges each character can portray their flaws, and it is with the support of others that they continue to be great. This message - whilst it may be deemed by some as a less significant detail to the plot of the films - is what I refer to when I talk of micro-therapy; that which promotes a healthy expectation of the standards we should hold ourselves to in reality.

Let us suggest for a moment however, that Hollywood executives are not concerned about the possible use of therapy in their films, as I have implied in the introduction to this chapter. Even without these benefits, multiple narratives assist in preserving the attention of an audience. I would argue that this gives multiple narrative blockbusters a significant advantage over single protagonist films. Never in a multiple narrative film must a “filler” scene be included. When the filmmakers want to end one scene, they can do so by switching to a different character. The significance of avoiding filler scenes is that current audiences are increasingly developing a desire for quick release pleasure due to a growing online culture. Here the art of the short film has been tailored and perfected through platforms such as BuzzFeed, YouTube, Vine etc. Through these platforms viewers can expect to be made to laugh or brought to tears in a matter of minutes, and I would suggest that this – among other modern day variables – results in them having short attention spans. As Hollywood attempts to live up to the expectations of these audiences, “The baseline style has become more visually and aurally dynamic in an attempt to rivet the attention of the spectator and to maintain energy through intensified continuity’ (Plantinga 2009:139). As creatives attempt to live up to this expectation, an issue is caused whereby they must nevertheless maintain suspense. I believe suspense to be created through delayed satisfaction, which at first sight may appear to be in conflict with quick release pleasures. However, suspense is a necessary component in a feature film to maintain interest.

To clarify this claim, I turn you to part of Plantinga’s cognitive film theory, whereby he explains that ‘Films elicit both emotions of extended duration – what [he calls] global emotions – and those that last only a few seconds, which [he calls] Local Emotions. The global emotions such as suspense, curiosity, fascination and anticipation, are important in maintaining the spectators focus and concern throughout the viewing of a film. (Plantinga 2009:69) whilst local emotions, can be seen as those in which an audience consciously go to the movies to experience; in a horror they expect to be scared, in a romance they expect to both be brought to tears and to experience the heights of joy. No filmmaker is capable of producing local emotions constantly for the duration of a feature length film, as that is simply not the way in which a human mind works. Rather our emotions are attached to a larger mood, and moods must be manipulated at a much slower pace. It is during the transition of these intense emotions, that global emotions play a significant role in maintaining interest, whilst meanwhile, the film works on converting spectator attention and mood.

It is here that we can return to my claim that the successful future of film, relies, at the heart of everything, on interest. Indeed theorists such as Carroll E. Izard. (1972: 68) and Nico Fridja (1986) regard interest as a fundamental emotion within itself. If modern audiences are stimulated by free and quickly accessible pleasures online, what about the nature of feature length films should interest them enough to watch something of a longer length? More bluntly, if we regard short films as being tailored to offer local emotions, then surely the very essence of the feature length sales pitches should be their capacity to offer global emotions and an in depth look into the minds of the characters. This is, for the most part, why I warned of the dangers of relying on spectacle, as it exists elsewhere in much more easily accessible forms.

If the key to selling films truly does lie in the generation of global emotions, of which I identify suspense as the most commonly used example, it seems logical to explore those who are deemed masters of suspense and what they have done well; most notably Alfred Hitchcock. Robin Woods pins the success of Hitchcock films on the moral inadequacy of the characters they encompass, arguing that as a consequence the films ‘penetrate and undermine our complacency and set emotions, and bring about a consequent readjustment in our attitude to life’ (Plantinga 2009:163). That is to suggest they deviate from the Hollywood model, whereby it is assumed ‘that most audiences prefer a strong and clear moral compass that assists them in developing strong desires and concern-based construals (Plantinga, 2009:101) I don’t mean to to suggest in anyway that Hitchcock films do not develop strong emotions; reputation alone would strongly lean to the contrary; that is that the resulting emotions are much more complex, and therefore more penetrating and memorable. The affect of a moral dilemma remains in the memories of an audience much longer than the short-lived pleasures of spectacle. ‘Conflicting, apparently mutually exclusive, responses are set up in the spectator, with disturbing results’ (Wood 2009:177); results that they must question, even if only on a subconscious level. ‘It is this conflict within the spectator’ Wood writes ‘this is the essence of the ensuing suspense’ (Wood 2009:177).

Taking this new idea of how to make suspense through morally complex narratives, I bring us back to multiple narratives and the Marvel Universe. I suggested before that Marvel are particularly successful with their films, and I believe that it is largely down to the same reason in which Hitchcock was successful previously. None of Marvel’s characters are morally unobjectionable: black widow was a trained assassin; hulk has hurt many people when he gets angry; Iron Man (Tony Stark) used to lead a weapons company thereby holding some responsibility of lives lost at war. Furthermore, even in a less questionable sense, the characters are morally flawed. Take for example Iron Man’s reaction to the wormhole in The Avengers Assemble (2012). This left him blinded by fear, leading him more than once to make decisions that unintentionally put others in danger in later films. Surely, morally questionable characters like this belong in the position of the antagonist, so what about them has lead us to accept them instead, as our protagonist?

A notable feature of Marvel characters is their humor; take for example the anti-villain Deadpool, who’s recent Movie (2016) became the highest grossing R-rated film of all time (Child, 2016: online). Drawing back to the current Avengers Universe, Tony Stark too maintains his unique style of blunt, sarcastic one-liners, even in times of vulnerability. Take for example, during Iron Man 3 (2013), where Stark visably breaks down throughout the plot. An obvious scene to demonstrate this, is when he initially meets a young boy called Harley Keener. Keener brings up the wormhole, causing Stark to hyperventilate. Stark bluntly acknowledges what is happening and its cause, whilst trying to pass it off under the disguise of humor. The boy continues and Stark freaks out more. This moment has the audience both laughing and sympathizing. Compare this to the example I gave in the introduction when I analysed a Bond character. The definition of “strength” in Ironman is much more complex and realistic than that which we gather from the straight-faced and mildly affected character in Spectre. As has been noted about Hitchcock films, it is this complexity that breeds suspense, as the audience question when Tony will no longer be able to maintain his jokes and whether there will come a time where the fear becomes too much. This is precisely why the audience becomes compelled to finish the film; in hope that these questions will be answered.

To evaluate then, the production of this more complicated understanding of strength, not only serves to maintain interest, but also to make Tony feel relatable. This relatability leads to an audience accepting the superhero as their protagonist despite his flaws. Moreover, through this acceptance they unknowingly accept a more therapeutic means of understanding the world, holding them in good stead for when they leave the movie theatre. As this understanding transcends into the next ensemble film - The Avengers: Age of Ultron, whereby Iron Man continues to be somewhat fearful – the audience are invited to build upon this understanding as they begin to separate action from motivation. Visably highlighted early on by Scarlett Witch, Tony’s previously addressed concern is revisited. In ways, this concern becomes the core of the overarching moral dilemma of the film. It is this fear that pushes Stark to make decisions about artificial intelligence that are questionable. Due to our previously established alignment with Stark, we want to hold his actions as good. Nonetheless, it is this same understanding of ‘peace’ that fuels the evil character of Ultron, challenging our perspective. By purposely comparing these two characters, the audience is forced to question their understanding of right and wrong, and to understand that an action may be bad, even when the motivation is good. As you may remember from chapter 1, this is the primary goal of narrative therapy, suggesting that this understanding can result in personal satisfaction and acceptance of the flawed self.

To conclude, thus far I have sought to show how therapy is intertwined with common filmic elements - such as suspense – that help a film to profit. One does not have to jeopardize the status of the film as entertainment, for its affects to be beneficial in other ways. Now that I have established this understanding as part of my theory, I will go on to explain why film is a suitable medium for this therapy, and how these subconscious messages are understood and made useful.

Chapter 3

Marketing Characters, Non-Linguistic Imagination and the Cinematic Bubble

In the previous chapter, I explained why Marvel is succeeding as a company that works from a business model whereby the source materials for their films are pre-existing public content. In this chapter, I shall move on to explain why my theory also inspires the creation of new stories. Simultaneously, I hope to explain why I believe film to be a suitable medium for a particular type of therapy.

Constraints on filmmakers in the current blockbuster landscape means that original films (as opposed to remakes, novel adaptations etc.) are becoming scarce. I believe that through following my model, I may portray the marketability of innovative film. Explicitly, I propose that films should focus more on character. The way to sell this is by summing up the essence of a film in a single scene – a short if you will – as opposed to an edited trailer. This short should hint to the theme of the overall story and make an audience feel attached to a character/s. By doing this the audience get a taster that allows them to evaluate the likelihood of them enjoying the same story told in more depth. Take for example the PIXAR film UP (2009). In among the pre-release date footage circulated, included a clip from the exposition of the film:

A young boy, Carl Fredrickson meets a girl called Ellie, who enjoys playing the same make-believe games as him. The two create a lasting friendship turn relationship. During this time, the two aspire to travel to a lost land in South America. The day-to-day costs of living thwart their attempts to save, and eventually Ellie dies; their dream unfulfilled. This lack of goal fulfillment becomes a symbol of Carl’s grief.

This scene alone sums up what the feature will attempt to achieve; a story of grief, whereby the objective of finally reaching this goal-fulfillment, represents symbolically the grieving process that follows the death of a loved one. Whilst this scene results in audiences sympathetically mourning, they are aware that the sadness they feel was the result of a great love story, which causes a complex form of happiness to be felt also. The snippet teases the audience who wish to experience and understand this love story greater, compelling them to see the film in full. Their empathy with Carl’s response allows them to “play” that situation in the comfort of make-believe, which as a result prepares them for the inevitable death of one of their loved ones in reality.

It is not surprising that the majority of these types of narratives are primarily targeted at children (though made notably suitable for adult spectatorship as well). Indeed, in 1988, Babrow et al. found that children around the ages of 8 and 9 ‘provided more complex descriptions of fictional characters (dispositions, traits, motives) than of real people in their lives’ (Plantinga 2009:137). This suggests that the medium of cinema may be a significant tool in the teaching of social behavior, and I would argue as a result, self-confidence. Children are an obvious category to pin down as requiring education of any kind, but I believe that the sociological benefits far surpass this age group. To consider this claim I will explore another example of a PIXAR film that was successfully marketed.

In 2015 Pixar Studio’s released the film Inside Out. This film depicts a coming of age story of a young girl who moves to a new city and experiences the emotional turmoil associated with such an event. The point of view held in this story however, is not of the girl, but of her emotions; each depicted as separate interacting characters. The moral of the story is that sadness and happiness are not polar opposites, but instead continuations of each other – that sadness can have positive effects, and that without it, happiness also cannot thrive. It encourages emotional maturity, and a more complicated way of understanding the inner workings of our minds.

Again, this film was marketed very successfully using one prominent scene. Within this clip, the audience is not only shown the emotions inside the girl’s head, but the emotions within her parent’s heads as well, during a dinner-table argument. With different emotions leading the control panel in each head (happiness leads the child, sadness leads the mother and anger leads the dad) their understandings of the situation differ largely. This unique portrayal of a very commonplace occurrence is both relatable but humorous to an audience; enough to suitably intrigue them and make them crave to see the full feature. This scene works for children as it challenges a simplistic way of understanding emotions. However, the scene also entices adults as it places off stereotypes. The father is seen to be quick-tempered whilst the mother tutts disapprovingly. This mirrors what society teaches regarding to how each gender is expected to react in these types of situations. By portraying this disagreement in a humorous light, whereby audiences can identify to some degree to both characters once the situation of each is described more clearly (e.g. the dad wasn’t listening, so his response is somewhat triggered by his misunderstanding), they then respond by considering the situation. Whilst this may not change the way they behave, by changing the way they understand, it subconsciously allows them to have expectations that are more realistic and occasionally as a result, have responses that that are more forgiving – both of others and themselves.

This distanced objective view of the self is what I believe to be the most therapeutic affect of film spectatorship. The NHS have themselves recently investigated the idea of using media in a therapeutic manner, aiming as am I, to encourage individuals to consider themselves from this type of objective point of view. Over the past year within a piloting scheme in Lincolnshire, a team of radio specialists have been working with offending mentally ill patients in a specialized institute. Here they perform various workshops in which patients explore the stimulants of their negative emotions like that of rage. For example in one workshop, patients are told to describe a time they became angry such as when the guards check their bedrooms for potential weapons, violating their personal space in the process. They are then told to choose a moment in that story to pause. In the above example, this was just before the patient went to shout at the guard. By pausing the situation, they then have the opportunity/time to consider the situation objectively, much like I have suggested an audience can do in a movie-theatre. Just as the spectator can objectively empathise with a character then analyse the implications, so too can individuals take a distanced look on themselves by approaching a memory as a narrative. The primary difference between this pilot so far and my theory, is that the workshops are treated predominantly as stimulants for media creation (specifically radio), rather than the opposite way around. The future of this scheme however - no doubt for budgeting reasons - plans to use the recordings nationwide rather than the workshops. The NHS believe that by hearing these stories from other offenders, patients around the UK may be able to relate and benefit themselves – much like the way I have suggested.

Whilst researching this scheme prior to this report, I spoke to Dylan Roys one of the leading radio practitioners of the scheme. During my conversation with him he told me why he thought radio was the most suitable medium. For him, sound had the capabilities of having a lasting affect on listeners, as – like reading a book – they were required to fill in some of the information themselves. For Roys this meant that their mind engaged with the material offered more so than a medium that presented all the information. As a result, he believed the subsequent impression stayed in the memories of the listeners for longer than a visual media. Although I agree with the claim made by Roys, that the imagination aspect of media had a large part in retaining memory, I disagree entirely with his conclusion that sound is a more appropriate medium than visuals. As Plantiga suggests ‘whereas some literature explicitly tells readers what characters are thinking and feeling (leaving little to the imagination), in nearly all films, spectators must infer and imagine the characters thoughts and feelings’ (Plantinga 2009:30). So whilst Roys’s radio may allow audiences to imagine the locations in a more personal manner, it could arguably in some case’s require them to imagine less about the emotions the characters portray. Contemporary western film on the other hand has developeda specific Stanislavski style of acting, so as to encourage the most in depth reading of character subtext. Where a radio may be the most suitable medium for a story set in the dark, whereby the lack of sight aids the imagination of beasts and terrors that lurk in the emptiness, likewise film is at times the more suitable medium for stories where a character silently suffers. Indeed, ‘Johannes Riis argues that the move from broad declamatory acting styles to a more naturalistic acting style in the Silent era in Europe stems in part from a recognition that rather than merely expressing the outward signs of an emotion, the actor could suggest the objective of the emotion, and thus engage in a more subtle expression’ (Plantinga 2009:122). So in the example above, a voiceless facial expression can say much more than words ever could. Furthering that statement, Plantinga expresses that ‘Films are primarily apprehended through non-linguistic channels of communication (Plantinga 2009:112). In summary, I believe the two mediums both have differing but equally useful strengths in the application of therapy. I choose to focus on film partly out of a personal bias towards visual communication, and partly because I believe there to be an issue with attention in a modern environment. Whilst radio is often experienced simultaneously with other day-to-day activities, it is specifically the environment of a cinema that I believe to be the advantage film has over another media available. For the rest of this chapter I shall go on to explain why.

Lets start first with the physical space of a cinema. Plantinga asserts than ‘Spectators are positioned in the theatre for receptiveness, with comfortable seating, climate control, darkened lighting, and a wide- screen image and digital multi channel sound to provide for ease of attention and maximum sensory stimulation’ (Plantinga 2009:117). In essence, the cinema room is a bubble from the outside world, a place where one transports to another realm temporarily through the power of imagination. Suitably, the darkened room isolates the audience from the busy world outside and provides, in some regards, an environment for meditation. What I mean by this, is that just as meditation seeks to allow one’s self to forget the outer world and focus on inner reflection, so too, a cinema room encourages the entertainment and exploration of emotions; one of the most important elements of our inner selves. Where else may we experience the cathartic affects of the cinematic experience, where one may cry and express otherwise negative emotions without battling common concerns like remaining strong, putting on a face for an outward society, focusing on work etc. Without these concerns, or in some respect, distractions for the outer world the spectators ‘automatic perceptual response in heightened in film’ (Plantinga 2009:66); we actively want to pay attention, we want to explore the levels of detail that are otherwise stunted in our day to day existence.

In this bubble of a room, filmmakers can take advantage of various forms of mis-en-scene, sound expressions and editing techniques to express things that an individual would not be able to in the real world. This is ‘reference to what some psychologists call “weak synesthesia”… a form of cross-modal fittingness that is experienced by most people’ (Plantinga 2009:157). For example, if a character we grow attached to is harmed physically or hurt emotionally, a dimming of lighting, a gentle undertone of minor chords or a lingering close-up all feel like they belong to the emotional experience expressed in the story. None of these elements can be expressed in a written literature; few can be expressed in an aural or still art medium. It is this unique element of the moving image that is the reason I start with film as the most appropriate media to begin using as a form of micro-therapy.

In this environment, whereby an audience is exposed to limited background noise ‘Physiological functions of the body such as the heartbeat or brainwaves, tend to synchronize with the rhythmic patterns of audio, whether a complex musical score or heartbeats’ (Plantinga 2009:131). Moreover, ‘All the resulting sensations from muscles, joints, tendons, from skin and viscera, from blood circulation and breathing, gives the colour of living experience to the emotional reflection in our mind’ (Munsterberg 1916:53). With such a powerful affect, not simply on the minds of the spectator, but also on their bodily responses to such emotions, the cinematic environment of a theatre is arguably one of the most suitable places in modern society for an individual to address their emotional stability. ‘That the film spectator is not merely a conscious thinker but also an embodied biological human being has been the subject of considerable attention in film theory recently’ (Plantinga 2009:115) and it is this status as a responsive, feeling human that my theory attempts to provoke. Too often, it is heard that those who needed help with their mental health did not seek the help they needed, because their rational mind was too proud to require assistance. By appealing to the other side of our being, we may unknowingly accept the therapeutic advantages of a medium disguised as, or more accurately, designed, as entertainment.

Robert C. Roberts suggests that ‘The narrative artist is a conductor of the free readers feelings. The narrative is not rigid tracks but a walking path that gently guides the flow of feeling, even if wandering from it is frequent and easy’ (2003:346). This appropriately allows for individuals to deviate from the proposed thought-pattern and emotional response encoded by the filmmakers, to unknowingly tailor their experience to their own needs and biases. Nevertheless, ‘the play of emotion is often controlled for pleasantness, intensity, and duration to ensure satisfaction by the films end’ (Plantinga 2009:67), and as I have suggested before, my understanding of satisfaction differs from the Hollywood model. I believe that somewhat more challenging narratives, like that of Inside Out whereby the audience is allowed to critically interact with the narrative in a manner that breeds new meaning, produces a happiness like that which ancient Greek philosophers referred to as Eudemonia – which in summary is a feeling of contentment for general life. For Hollywood filmmakers to believe an audience simply enjoyed the re-equilibrium by the end of the Inside Out, and to see this goal-fulfillment as the only source of happiness, is to take a limiting Hedonistic viewpoint of happiness – which in comparison focuses on the delivery of quick release pleasures, rather than inner satisfaction.

A final way that I wish to suggest that film itself affects a spectator is through “the arresting image”. This is when ‘the narrative seems to momentarily slowed to a crawl and an effect laden image is foregrounded allowing time for the ripple effect by which spectators association and memories reverberates with the image suggesting connections with other texts and a personal experience such as dreams and memories (Plantinga 2009:144). These moments encourage the audience to relate scenes to their own memories and to allow them to intertwine, creating as a result, a stronger memory and association. These links allow for faster responses to similar stimulus in the future. Imagine for example, the spectator of Inside Out feels frustration when sadness tries to use the control panel. During a scene where one of Riley’s personality islands crumble, the slow decay of the structures allows the audience to consider the situation and make associations with memories of when they felt a part of them was lost. They may in turn associate these with the emotion of sadness and temporarily feel justified in this assertion, due to the on screen narrative echoing this viewpoint. When by the end of the film, we are shown that happiness has often resulted from sadness; the audience is made to question their previous assertion. Again, we see an arresting image as happiness scans through the memories over and over, trying to understand this change in belief systems herself. This allows the spectator to soak in this proposition, and create new associations with the memories they previously exposed. Should they carry this forward into their subconscious day to day living, the next time they feel sad and in despair, they may comfort themselves in the knowledge that their sadness will be temporary, and furthermore a necessary evil, should they hope to experience the binary of happiness in the future.

To conclude, the medium of film offers so much in regards to storytelling, that it would be a shame to not use this medium to its full potential. By focusing on character development, narratives that challenge our perspectives and a scene that sums up both of these quickly, one can easily market new, innovative film. To succeed in encouraging audiences back to the cinema, filmmakers should focus on these strong points of film, and use the physical space to their advantage; in the process of which they could have positive, therapeutic affects on the audiences they engage.

Chapter 4

Motor Mimicry, Proprioceptive Feedback and the Redefining of Minorities

In the last chapter, I expressed why I believe films to be a suitable medium for micro-therapy based on the physical space they are exhibited in and their status as a multi-sensory media. Throughout the following chapter, I shall build upon that claim by exploring the science of spectatorship and how the communal viewing of films can be beneficial. To begin our understanding of film spectatorship, I will explore the concept of motor mimicry.

Janet B Bavelas et al. depict elementary motor mimicry with the example of ‘wincing when another is injured’; that is, the mimicry of other people’s actions or inferred reactions. Historically this was understood as an intrapersonal experience. Plantinga argues from ‘a Darwinian functional perspective’, that ‘as social beings, humans gain adaptive benefit from the imaginative rehearsal of various human predicaments’ (Plantinga 2009:31). Over recent decades however, evidence has suggested a much more complex phenomena. Precisely, Bavelas et al. suggest that as well as these private aspects of motor mimicry, there are many interpersonal factors relating to a persons automated reactions. They demonstrated this in an experiment, whereby peoples reactions to victims of a painful injury were measured; ‘Microanalysis showed that the pattern and timing of the observer's motor mimicry was significantly affected by the visual availability of the victim’ (1986: 322-329). This would suggest that we hold evolutionary concerns about how socially acceptable our behavior is.

The importance of “mirror neurons” is becoming widely respected, with researchers viewing ‘mimicry as a central element of human sociality, behavior, learning, and response’ (Plantinga 2009:124). This claim - that we grow knowledge through imitation - would suggest that by merely being exposed to different emotions and scenario’s one can better their social comprehension. I would go so far as to argue that the larger the variety of scenario’s, the greater our knowledge. Film has the unique ability of being able to provide this variety of stories and reactions to a widespread audience. David Giles writes ‘media provides information that enables us to understand the world, which at the level of “self-understanding” provides us with information about ourselves – it enables the creation of identities by allowing us to interpret our behaviors and compare ourselves with others’ (2003:24). Inferring from this, it is knowledge of others that allows us to truly understand ourselves; this I believe to be therapeutic. To explain why, I quote philosopher Albert Camus who said "But what is happiness except the simple harmony between a man and the life he leads?". As the one component of our lives that follows us everywhere, our identities should surely be of high priority to understand and love. If social mimicry does in fact help us to learn about ourselves, and if learning about ourselves does indeed better our emotional well-being, then by deduction, the cinematic environment must be deemed to be therapeutic, as it provides us with two types of potential mimicry: that of onscreen characters and of the audience that surrounds us.

As we continue, I wish to explore the affects of this dual mimicry. To do so I will focus on the idea of “emotional contagion”: ‘the phenomenon of “catching” the emotions of those around or of those who we observe’ (Plantinga 2009:125). Plantinga claims that the reaction of a cinema audience ‘can accelerate and increase the intensity of the individual viewers reaction’ (Plantinga 2009:125). As a result, we can conclude that dual mimicry can work much like an echo-chamber, whereby an audience can heighten any empathy an individual spectator felt towards the characters, should they express a similar kind of empathy themselves. Nevertheless, this primarily refers to times in which the on-screen emotion is mirrored by the off-screen emotion. Alternatively, since ‘our modular minds are capable of multiple, ambiguous, and even conflicting responses’ (Plantinga 2009:127), it is entirely possible that a spectator sympathizes with a character, but simultaneously judges their actions. Equally, the spectator may have conflicting emotions to those around them. This conflict can itself be therapeutically beneficial, as the more an individual considers their emotional response in comparison to others, the greater their understanding of their moral boundaries. This in turn allows for greater flexibility in the standards they hold themselves to; they can begin to tailor the strength of their emotions against the level to which a moral standard has been broken. The luxury position an audience holds is that they can interact with a film character both internally and externally (Plantinga 2009:103-104). The position of camera’s, the convention of following a primary protagonist, and the focus on emotion manipulation in Hollywood film, means that spectators can empathize quite personally with a character’s motivations – forming an internal interaction. Likewise, through the use of dramatic irony, the audience nevertheless can form a more evaluative viewpoint, through their broader range of knowledge relating to the situation at hand – thus forming an external interaction. This adds yet another level to the audiences comprehension of morality, heightening any affects I have claimed them to have thus far, But what other benefits can be brought from this situation?

Whether internally or externally, the audience is made to interact; so much so, that they do mimic the expressions of the characters and people around them. Even if we were to neglect the social benefits of this response, this mimicry can be seen to be therapeutically beneficial in other ways too, primarily through “proprioceptive feedback”. Plantinga explains that ‘facial expressions provide us with proprioceptive feedback that at most causes an emotion and at least influences our emotional experience, especially our mood. In effect, if you want a brighter outlook on life smile, a lot’ (Plantinga 2009:125). Furthermore, William James stated that along with facial expressions “visceral, muscular, and cutaneous effects" too, affect the proprioceptive feedback of the human mind (Adelmann 1989: 252), all of which we have stated to be created through the watching of films in the last chapter. The reason why the large majority of emphasis goes purely on facial expression is due to Silvan Tomkins claim that "the face expresses affect, both to others and the self, via feedback, more rapid and more complex than any stimulation of which the slower moving visceral organs are capable" (Adelmann 1989:255). If the speed at which a smile can change our mood is significant as he may suggest, they why do those who are sad not just smile more?

For anybody that has suffered from depression and sought help, this research/advise is readily available, along with complex therapies such as CBT that form from the same line of thought. The issue with this is, when you are the subject who is in that state of despair, simply getting out of bed in the morning can seem like a chore. To continuously remind one’s self to hold a positive facial expression is, in itself, potentially draining, therefore reducing the benefits available. However, if we accidentally mimic these facial expressions from others, through emotional contagion, then the effort-factor is significantly reduced. Instead of tracking one’s personal expression, one can simply place themselves in an environment whereby they can soak up the energy of those around them. No wonder our stress-filled society has whole-heartedly accepted the online media landscape with open arms. For those who cannot even gather the strength to get to a cinema screen, the world of online film invites them in. The status of online media, therefore, fills a void for those who would otherwise be socially deprived.

This brings us to our next and final leading company from the modern landscape: that of Netflix. Netflix is an online platform that I believe paves the way for the future of online content. It has built itself upon a strong business model and sophisticatedly molded a gap in the market for itself. However, it is not for this reason that I believe Netflix to be great. What captures me is the notable style of their “Netflix original series”. In particular, I have noticed a pattern of drama’s including LGBT characters. A prime example is the science fiction/drama show Sense8 (2015 - present), which features in its cast a transgendered lesbian called Nomi Marks, a pansexual black woman called Amanita, a closeted gay Mexican called Lito Rodriguez and a free-loving homosexual called Hernando. Take as another example the superhero/psychological thriller made in conjunction with Marvel; Jessica Jones (2015-present), which the media reports as having included Marvels first major gay character; Jeri Hogarth. Both these examples, and countless more are evidence to suggest why Netflix original series hold a reputation for displaying minority characters as commonplace and non-novelty.

A show that I would like to explore briefly in a little more detail is that of Orange is the New Black (2013 – present). This comedy-drama is based off memoirs written by Piper Kerman, whereby she depicts her time within a minimum-security women’s prison. This refreshingly realistic account of life in prison shows a multitude of personalities, all of which act as a protagonist of sorts from episode to episode. Piper is used as the catalyst to the story of the prison at large. By starting with her character – a woman from a respectable middle-class family – the audience is instantly made to approach the series with an open and accepting mind. Furthermore, through the details of her crime, she is also revealed to be bisexual; an element of her identity that even the onscreen characters, such as her parents, had not known about. As she begins her sentence, this sexual orientation opens her up to the very visible LGBT society within the prison. For Piper this is one of the key features of her story of identity; each of the other characters going through a story of their own. The great thing about how this series is portrayed is that it challenges traditional series in which gay characters are token minorities rather than living, breathing identities in their own right. OITNB includes such a vast array of characters that none can be deemed cliché or token, challenging through their existence the nature of stereotypes.

For this type of online content therefore, the therapeutic benefits are not only limited to that of the depressed, but also of an array of minorities, who are finally being represented in the way they should be. For people that deviate from ‘the norm’ who are looking for characters to model themselves against – you might even say mimic - the future therapeutic benefits can only begin to be imagined.

Conclusion

Search Light function, Prosocial Effects of Films and an Optimistic Future

One of the many roles that emotions play in our lives is the “search light function” (Carroll, 1998: 261-262) whereby ‘we not only pay attention to certain details and ignore others, we also search the environment for specific types of stimuli related to our concerns (Plantinga 2009:79). Everybody carries with them concerns, stresses and anxieties linked to the busy modern day world. Whether these be socially provoked, or the result of a capitalist, hierarchical society, we spend our lives wishing we were happier, but failing to see how that is possible. The media plays such a large role in our cognition of the world we live in, that I find it surprising that there has not been more focus on how it may be used beneficially. For those who search for things to support their belief that life is cruel, films seem to be a perfect medium to ponder to these beliefs, only to then create plot twists, which within themselves will challenge the core of these beliefs, triggering a spiraling affect of contemplation. ‘In the long term, such experiences [of emotion during film] may burn themselves into the memories of audiences and may become templates for thinking and behavior’ (Plantinga 2009:6).

For too long, the focus of media studies has been on the negative affects of films, with no suggestion of how they may also be used positively. Gilles writes ‘an important difference between the antisocial and the prosocial effects of media is that the former are almost invariably accidental. The primary function of most violent media is entertainment’ (2003:74). However, I do not believe that prosocial effects cannot also be accidental to some degree. Entertainment can still be the primary goal of a film, without sacrificing its capacity to do good. In the report above, I have attempted to convince that this is the case. I hope that by highlighting the theory behind the therapeutic manipulation of film narrative, I may inspire future filmmakers to be brave, to tread to territory and to create awe-inspiring, world-changing narratives.

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Filmography

Avenegers Assemble. United States: Marvel Comics, 2012. Film.

Avengers: Age Of Ultron. United States: Marvel Comics, 2015. Film.

Deadpool. United States: Marvel Comics, 2016. Film

Inside Out. United States: Pixar Animation Studio's, 2015. Film.

Iron Man 3. United States: Marvel Comics, 2012. Film

Netflix. Breaking Bad. 2008 - 2013. Web. 9 May. 2015.

Netflix. Jessica Jones. 2015 - Present. Web. 15 Sept. 2015.

Netflix. Orange Is The New Black. 2013 - Present. Web. 15 Sept. 2015.

Netflix. Sense8. 2015 - Present. Web. 15 Sept. 2015.

Spectre: 007. United Kingdom: Sam Mendez, 2015. Film.

UP. United States: Pixar Animation Studio's, 2009. Film

Channel 4 (More 4). Indian summers. 2015 - present. Web. 12 Dec. 2015.

 
 
 

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